Ever wonder how countries choose which language to speak, laws to follow and traditions? The solution is thousands of years in the past. The empires of old were analogous to gigantic construction companies which laid the foundations for our modern world. They built roads, laws, languages and ideas that we still have today. Back in time we go: 11 of history’s greatest empires that left a mark on the face of the countries we live in today.
Why You Should Care About Ancient Empires
Picture the empires of old as designers of civilization. As these mighty kingdoms conquered regions, they did not just control people — they also introduced new technologies, disseminated languages, constructed cities and developed forms of government. While these empires have long since crumbled, their sway never quite vanished. It mutated and became part of the DNA of modern nations.
From the alphabet in which this is written today to the democratic process used widely by countries now, just about everything has an origin in ancient cultures. Knowing about these empires helps us make sense of why our modern world looks like it does.
The Roman Empire: The Greatest Empire Of Western Civilization
Timeline: 27 BC-476 AD (Western Rome) | 27 BC – 1453 AD (Eastern Rome)
The Roman Empire was not merely vast: It was revolutionary. Rome had once ruled lands from Britain to Egypt, from Spain to Syria. The Romans were good at organization, engineering, and law. They constructed roads so strong, some are even used now — more than 2,000 years later!
Countries Forged From The Influence Of Rome
The legacy of Rome is still alive in Italy, France, Spain, Portugal and Romania. These countries all speak Romance languages — those directly descended from Latin, the tongue of Rome. French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese and Romanian are all descended from Latin.
Roman Remnants of a Living Legacy: The term “senate” is derived from the Roman Senate. “Parliament” remains the name for many countries’ legislatures. The legal doctrine of “innocent until proven guilty” is likewise a legacy of Roman law.
But the influence of Rome is far more than linguistic. The legal systems of nearly all European countries are Roman-derived. Even the architecture you walk by in government buildings — those pillars and high domed roofs — that’s Roman style. And countries including the United States, while never part of the empire, drew extensively on Roman ideas about how states should be run and what citizens should do.
The Persian Empire as a Bridge to East and West
Timeline: 550 BC – 651 AD (multiple dynasties)
Though it was vast and surprisingly modern in its outlook. It ran from Egypt to India and was celebrated for its tolerance of other cultures and religions. The Persians pioneered the original transnational highway system, had an effective postal communications network and established a highly advanced bureaucracy to handle their vast dominions.
Persia’s Children: Iran and Beyond
Contemporary Iran is the successor of the Persian Empire. Farsi (as the Persian language is now known) is still spoken across Iran, as well as in many of the other languages that span Central Asia. Afghanistan, Tajikistan and parts of Uzbekistan have Persian cultural roots too.
In the Persian Empire, they had things like human rights (yes, you read that right!). Some of Persia’s greatest rulers, such as Cyrus the Great, established what many historians believe to be the first human rights declaration. He let conquered peoples maintain their religions, their customs — a pretty radical concept in ancient times.
The Mongol Empire: The Largest Land Empire in History
Timeline: 1206 AD – 1368 AD
When Genghis Khan and his descendants built the Mongol Empire, no one before or since has ruled more — about 9 million contiguous square miles at its peak. The Mongols were feared as warriors, but also were great organizers and encouraged trade.
Mongol DNA in Modern Nations
Mongolia is itself the most direct beneficiary, but Mongol influence has also spread deep into Russia, China and Kazakhstan and across much of Central Asia. The Mongols set the Silk Road on its most golden path that it had never known before in connecting the East and the West. Disseminating more than just commodities, this trade network shared ideas, technologies and cultures.
The colonization of Siberia and centralized state apparatuses represent two elements in Russia’s expansion. The Chinese Yuan Dynasty in China was established by the Mongol rulers, who occupied modern Beijing and influenced its administration and culture. Even genetic studies reveal that millions of people within Asia have Mongol heritage.
The Ottoman Empire: The Islamic Superpower
Timeline: 1299 AD – 1922 AD
The empire hung in there for more than 600 years — longer than many countries today have been hanging around! At the peak of its power, it ruled over southeastern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa. The Ottomans forged a complex administration that ruled over dozens of ethnic groups and religions.
Ottoman Footprints Across Three Continents
The Ottoman influence molded dozens of other countries: Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, Bosnia, Albania, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Syria, Lebanon and Jordan lived under centuries of Ottoman rule; so did Israel and Palestine (then just Arab provinces), along with Iraq and parts of Saudi Arabia.
| Country | Ottoman Legacy | Years Under Ottoman Rule |
|---|---|---|
| Turkey | Directly successor state, language and culture | Core homelands |
| Greece | Architecture, calligraphy, folk art | 400 years |
| Egypt | Administrative systems with its city quarters | 400 years |
| Bosnia | Religious diversity, bridges and fortresses | 500 years |
| Iraq | Provincial boundaries in the current map shaped from Ottoman spatial divisions, urban planning | 400 years |
The architecture of the Ottomans — those lovely mosques with a few minarets and big domes — continues to shape the skylines. Ottoman cuisine shaped the eating habits of the wider Mediterranean and Middle East. Even certain legal and administrative procedures date back to Ottoman times.
The British Empire: The Sun Never Sets
Timeline: 1583 – 1997 (Hong Kong handover)
At its height in the 1920s, the British Empire ruled over almost a quarter of the world’s land and people. It was the biggest empire in history by land area. The British took their language, law, sports and administration around the world.
The Anglosphere and Beyond
The United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh now owe at least part of their existence as modern nations to the world’s largest empire. As of today, English is the most prevalent language in the world due to colonization by Britain being a major contributor to its spread.
The British left institutions of parliamentarianism, common law, education. The British sports of cricket, soccer, rugby and tennis are universal today. India’s sprawling railway system, one of the largest in the world, was constructed by the British. Afternoon tea was introduced and popularized by Britain in its colonies.
English-speaking Areas of the World (Impacted by British Power)
- North America: 85%
- Europe: 45%
- South Asia: 30%
- Africa: 25%
- Oceania: 90%
The Spanish Empire: Spanish America and the Birth of Globalization
Timeline: 1492 AD – 1898 AD
Christopher Columbus’s 1492 voyage to Spain began a door that would lead to one of history’s most powerful empires. The Spanish Empire was the first empire that succeeded in unlinking catholicism from geography (at least in theory). Conquistadors swept through South America, Central America and the Caribbean, creating an Empire with the same strength but a fraction of the size of Rome. The Spanish spilled their language, religion, and culture over two continents.
Latin America’s Spanish Heritage
Spanish is now the official language of 20 countries. Mexico, Colombia, Argentina, Chile, Peru, Venezuela, Ecuador and etc—are all Spanish speaking countries and are the official languages.
But language is the least of it. The Spanish also brought and spread Roman Catholicism to Latin America, which is today the largest religion in the region. Additionally, everything from colorful colonial buildings with inner gardens, tile roofs, and iron balconies to the type of law and even the way a city is organized, with a plaza in the center surrounded by a church and government buildings, is also based on Spanish colonial templates.
The Chinese Empire: The Middle Kingdom’s Long Shadow
Timeline: 221 BC – 1912 AD
China wasn’t a single empire; it was several dynasties strung together across two millennia. From the Qin Dynasty that was the first to unify China to the Qing Dynasty that ended in 1912, Chinese empires built one of the world’s oldest civilizations.
China’s Cultural Sphere
Modern China is an obvious beneficiary, but Chinese imperialism also changed Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and the rest of Southeast Asia. All of these countries adopted Chinese writing, Confucianism, administrative practices, and other cultural artifacts.
The Chinese also discovered how to make paper, gunpowder, the compass, and printing—the technologies that powered the modern era. The Great Wall of China was constructed and expanded by several dynasties and is one of humanity’s most staggering engineering feats. The Chinese also created several philosophies, most notably Confucianism, which continues to be a guide for how many people in these regions think about the family, society, and government.
Chinese Innovations Still in Use Today:
- The civil service examination – used to train modern governments around the world
- The invention of standardized currency
- The belief in meritocracy in governments
- The concept of the Mandate of Heaven – the idea that ruling dynasties could lose their position if they governed poorly
The Greek Empire: The Birthplace of Western Thought
Timeline: 800 BC – 146 BC
The Ancient Greeks never formed a single unified empire—all they had were city-states and later Hellenistic kingdoms. However, Greece’s conquests and colonization helped focus their ambition across the Mediterranean and the Middle East, whereby they handed their culture and thinking to the world. Greeks handed us democracy, philosophy, the theater, the Olympics, and the scientific method.
Greece’s Gift to Civilization
Modern Greece is the cultural descendant, but Greek influence runs through all Western civilization. Athens invented democracy because the concept that citizens should have a say in government began there. The Olympic Games, revived in 1896, honor this ancient Greek tradition.
Western civilization began with ideas and institutions in Greece. Philosophy stood at the center of this, and Greek philosophy, such as thinkers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, became foundational in the western field. Mathematics, medicine, physics, and astronomy all built on Greek foundations. Even the architectural design of many government buildings’ columns and triangular pediments are copied from Greek temples.
The Indian Empires: Maurya and Gupta
Timeline: 322 BC – 185 BC (Maurya) | 320 AD – 550 AD (Gupta)
The Maurya and Gupta Empires unified much of the Indian subcontinent and created cultural, religious, and intellectual achievements that still resonate today. The Maurya Empire, under Emperor Ashoka, spread Buddhism across Asia; and the Gupta Empire presided over what many people call India’s “Golden Age” of science, mathematics, astronomy, and literature.
India’s Lasting Contributions
Buddhism, which began in India and spread under Mauryan influence, is now practiced across Asia. For more information about ancient Indian civilization, visit Ancient History Encyclopedia.
Indian mathematicians invented the concept of zero and the decimal system we use today. Indian astronomy and mathematics laid foundations that Arab and European scholars would later build upon. Sanskrit, the ancient language of India, influenced many languages across South and Southeast Asia.
The Egyptian Empire: 3,000 Years of Civilization
Timeline: 3100 BC – 30 BC
Ancient Egypt lasted about 3,000 years — longer than the span from Jesus to our present day! The Egyptian Empire constructed monuments so awesome we still can’t fully understand how they did it. The pyramids, temples and sphinx were emblems of human greatness.
Egypt’s Eternal Legacy
Today’s Egypt of course inherits this tradition, but this influence extended throughout the ancient Mediterranean. The Egyptians invented one of the first systems of writing (hieroglyphics) and developed a 365-day calendar, advances in medicine and surgery, engineering, as well.
Greek and Roman art copied Egyptian arts and architecture. The concept of a strong, centralized state with a god-king as its leader, would dominate many future empires. Egyptian mathematics and geometry had to be very precise for their building works and became the cornerstone of many later cultures. And even our modern way of keeping time — splitting a day into 24 hours — is thanks to ancient Egyptian sensibilities.
The Aztec and Inca Empires: American Civilizations
Timeline: 1428 -1521 (Aztec) | 1438-1533 (Inca)
These were two great empires across Mesoamerica and South America before Europeans invaded. Both these pre-Columbian empires built complex societies with finely tuned agriculture, architecture and a high administrative structure in the case of both.
Indigenous Roots of Modern Nations
In Mexico, millions of people are descended from the Aztecs. In Peru and in these countries: Ecuador, Bolivia, northern Chile and what now is Argentina. Millions of people still speak Nahuatl (the language of the Aztecs) and Quechua (the language of the Incas).
| Empire | Modern Countries | Living Legacy |
|---|---|---|
| Aztec | Mexico | Language (Nahuatl), food (chili, tomatoes, avocados), place names, cultural traditions |
| Inca | Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, Argentina | Quechua language and culture, agricultural terraces, road system, textiles, food (potatoes, quinoa) |
These empires gave the world so many of its most important foods: tomatoes, potatoes, corn, chocolate and chili peppers all sprang from these civilizations. The Incas constructed roads, suspension bridges and other works across mountains that today’s engineers marvel at. Aztec and Inca’s methods of farming, including terrace farming and chinampas (floating gardens), continue to be practiced today.
The Nations Born of Empires Since the Dawn of Civilization
Every day of your life, in fact, you touch the legacies of ancient empires — whether you know it or not. If you use the alphabet, thank the Phoenicians and Greeks. If you follow laws, thank the Romans. When you count, when you add and subtract, thank ancient India. When you munch on chocolate or potatoes, thank the Aztecs and Incas.
These empires were not just conquering territory — they were constructing the infrastructure of civilization. They made the languages that became our languages. They were the ones who put in place legal principles upon which our societies are predicated. They invented technologies and ideas that we still employ. They went on to erect cities that would become modern capitals. They are the disseminators of religions that today billions follow.
Connecting Past to Present
Today’s nations are houses constructed on age-old masonry. The walls can be repainted, the furniture replaced and new rooms added — but the foundation remains. Languages, legal systems, cultural behaviors and even national boundaries of ancient empires continue to be handed down from one generation of nations to the next.
This inheritance is not always readily apparent — as with Romance languages manifestly descending from Latin. Other times it’s more subtle — like how democratic ideals from ancient Greece shaped late-comers like modern republics, thousands of years later. But overt or subtle, these old empires still form how we live and breathe and assemble our societies.
Frequently Asked Questions
Q: If ancient empires were super powerful, why did they fall?
A: Most of them came crashing down for a combination of reasons, be they economic problems, military losses or internal strife — that said in all cases involving empires we’re confronted with theories of their collapse; corruption and overextension are simply explanations around some tough realities. The strongest empires, as well, eventually grew too big to govern efficiently, either facing new hostilities or from within beginning to crumble. But their cultural influence continued well beyond the political empire.
Q: What ancient empire had the most influence on the world today?
A: It’s a matter of what you measure. Western law, language and government were based on the Roman Empire. More countries came under English direct or indirect influence than became part of the British Empire. Whether or not they were Chinese inventions used worldwide, it is still the Chinese Empire that produced them. In this issue, the impact of each empire differs regionally and in various areas of life: There’s no one response.
Q: Are there any countries in the world which are descendants of only one empire?
A: There are indeed very few nations that only one ancestor is imperial. Many, if not most, of the present-day countries have been shaped by several empires throughout history. (As in, Egypt was ruled by its own pharaohs, then Persians, Greeks, Romans and Arabs and Ottomans and British.) This sedimentation of influences is in fact relatively normal for most countries.
Q: Did empires only have negative effects on those they conquered in antiquity?
A: History is complicated. Empires often brought harm: conquests, forced labor and destruction of cultures. But they also disseminated technologies, linked disparate cultures, constructed infrastructure and at times sheltered religious and cultural diversity. Contemporary nations are the beneficiaries of both constructive and damaging legacies left by these former empires.
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Discover more: Top 10 Lost Cities From Ancient Times Revealed
Q: How do historians know so much about ancient empires?
A: Historians rely on many sources — written records and inscriptions, archaeological digs, ancient art and architecture, coins and the like, accounts by people who lived at the time. Advanced technology, such as satellite imagery, DNA analysis and carbon dating, also continue to reveal new clues about the past.
Q: Could a new empire, such as these ancient ones, arise today?
A: Not as we think of a traditional empire. Nowadays, modern international law, global institutions like the United Nations and national sovereignty make old-fashioned territorial empires all but impossible. (Though countries can still project significant cultural, economic and political power over other countries — sometimes referred to as “soft power” rather than empire.)
The Past Lives in the Present
Ancient empires aren’t all dusty history, of course — not only are they still with us, but we may have more in common with them than you think. Every time you cast a vote in an election, you’re engaging with a concept that has origins in ancient Greece and Rome. Each time you speak a language, obey a law or worship a god, you are linking yourself to empires and nations that have existed thousands of years ago.
These eleven empires—Roman, Persian, Mongol, Ottoman, British, Spanish, Chinese, Greek and Indian civilizations were sown into the ground as seeds to build up the stems of modern day nations all around us. They spread languages spoken by billions, invented legal systems used around the world, devised technologies we rely on and promoted cultural practices that continue to shape how we live.
So the next time you glance at a map, remember: those borders, countries and cultures didn’t just materialize out of thin air. They are the fruit of seeds long planted by old empires, nurtured for centuries and harvested into the rich world we inhabit today. Knowing about these empires helps us understand ourselves, our nations and the shared human story.
History is not only about the past — it’s about making sense of why today looks as it does. And when you know where you come from, you’re better equipped to figure out where you want to go next.
